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Less Basic Concepts in Rust

The real contents of this section is the project in m0_introduction::code::less_basic_concepts. Go into the file corresponding to each function being called in the main function in main.rs and read all of the comments in order. The code can also be found online.

Supplementary Comments

In this section, I'll take you through a few addendums, which aren't as much about a specific language construct, but some concepts it might help to know.

Aliasing

Aliasing is a term for when two pointers or references refer to the same place in memory. That might not sound like much of a problem at first, but it allows the compiler to make optimizations. Take a look at this code -

fn compute(input: &u32, output: &mut u32) {
    if 10 < *input {
        *output = 1;
    }
    if 5 < *input {
        *output *= 2;
    }
    // remember that `output` will be `2` if `input > 10`
}

fn compute(input: &u32, output: &mut u32) {
    let cached_input: u32 = *input; // keep `*input` in a register
    if 10 < cached_input {
        // If the input is greater than 10, the previous code would set the output to 1 and then double it,
        // resulting in an output of 2 (because `10<>` implies `5<>`).
        // Here, we avoid the double assignment and just set it directly to 2.
        *output = 2;
    } else if 5 < cached_input {
        *output *= 2;
    }
}

You can also check the Rustonomicon for a better explanation of aliasing. It is where the code snippets above are from. The code has been reformatted to preference. It may be on the more advanced side however.

Basically, whenever you write to a value and there are multiple references to that value hidden away in different places of the memory hieararchy, such as some threads registers, or even within the same function, everything becomes invalidated. This is one of the reasons for the borrow checker adamantly enforcing that there can be multiple shared (read-only) references to a value, but only one mutable reference (read/write), and if there is a mutable reference, there cannot be any shared references to that value. If there were multiple shared references and a mutable reference it would be impossible to guarantee correctness as just when a value is retrieved from RAM by a shared reference a write to that value may have ocurred, which in order to make the sequence of operations correct might necessitate another read, but what if it happens again? Another read! This is not what happens, you just get a program behaving "weird". In another case, it would also mean you could not read from a value and save that value in a local variable to do a bunch of operations before writing it somewhere. It already sounds very headscratching and like you should only ever do single threaded programs. But thankfully, the borrow checker is there to keep things in check for you. One recommendation, you should try to minimize the time that a mutable reference to a value will exist.

Multiple Function Definitions Not Allowed

As opposed to languages like C++, you cannot have multiple functions with the same name in Rust. In C++ this is perfectly legal, and the compiler will attempt to deduce which one you mean based on the way you are calling function().

void function(int argument_a, int argument_b) {}
void function(int argument_a, int argument_b, int argument_c) {}
void function(int argument_a, int argument_b, float argument_c) {}

Rust seems to be designed in a way as to minimize the amount of ambiguity faced by the compiler (and you too). Sometimes in Rust code you will see several different constructor functions, such as build, build_from_ints, new and default. In one way, that is a pain in the ass. In another way, it's quite nice. It forces the programmer to be explicit about how the functions behaviours are different, instead of being unwritten, implicit, or 'well, you can just read the code, it's not that complicated'. If you ever think or say that. Remember this... ahem RED FLAG! Fix your stuff so people don't have to guess, it will probably make the next person to read your code hate you slightly less. Which is a good thing!

Index Checking

Whenever you access an element in an indexed collection such as a Vec:

for index in 0..data.len() {
    do_something(data[index]);
}

Whenever you do this in Rust, there is a runtime check to make sure this index is not outside of the memory of the vector. This does have some performance cost, but unless you are absolutely sure this processing is happening in a hot region (a region of your code where a lot of time is spent), it is not recommended to try and circumvent this.

for index in 0..data.len() {
    unsafe {
        do_something(data.get_unchecked(index));
    }
}

It requires an unsafe region, which is a region in your code where you tell the compiler to allow you to do some things it would otherwise not allow you to, and call the function .get_unchecked(index). An unsafe region does not turn off all checking, but in general, if you are at the level of reading the guide, you don't need it and we won't be talking about it more. If you really want to read more about unsafe, the Rustonomicon is the defacto standard introduction to unsafe in Rust.

The two above functions are equivalent to

for(int index{0}; index < data.size(); ++index) {
    do_something(data.at(index));
}

for(int index{0}; index < data.size(); ++index)  {
    do_something(data[index]);
}

Note however, that square bracket indexing is the defacto standard way of accessing an array element in both languages. This showcases a core difference between the two languages. One being safety opt-out, and another being safety opt-in.